This review systematically summarizes the recent progress of biodegradable and clearable inorganic nanomaterials, particularly for application in cancer theranostics and other disease therapies. Thus, it is of critical importance to develop biodegradable and clearable inorganic nanomaterials for biomedical applications. In addition, a comprehensive understanding of the design of such nanomaterials and their metabolic pathways within the body is essential for enabling the expansion of theranostic applications for various diseases and advancing clinical trials. Over the past several decades, the emergence of biodegradable and clearable inorganic nanomaterials has offered the potential to prevent such long-term toxicity. However, toxicity can be caused by the long-term, non-specific accumulation of these inorganic nanomaterials in healthy tissues, preventing their large-scale clinical utilization. Inorganic nanomaterials that have inherently exceptional physicochemical properties (e.g., catalytic, optical, thermal, electrical, or magnetic performance) that can provide desirable functionality (e.g., drug delivery, diagnostics, imaging, or therapy) have considerable potential for application in the field of biomedicine. Lastly, we describe the challenges facing the integration of nanoscale immunomodulators and provide a forward-looking perspective on the innovative nanotechnology-based tools that may ultimately prove effective at eradicating metastatic diseases.

Specifically, it discusses directly reversing the immunological status of the primary tumor, harnessing the potential of peripheral immune cells, preventing the formation of a pre-metastatic niche, and inhibiting the tumor recurrence through postoperative immunotherapy. This paper reviews the cutting-edge trends in nano-immunoengineering for metastatic cancers with an emphasis on different nano-immunotherapeutic strategies.

In contrast to conventional cancer immunotherapies, rationally designed nanomaterials can trigger specific tumoricidal effects, thereby improving immune cell access to major sites of metastasis such as bone, lungs, and lymph nodes, optimizing antigen presentation, and inducing a persistent immune response. However, nanotechnology holds tremendous promise for improving immunotherapeutic outcomes in patients with metastatic cancer. Unfortunately, effective treatments for metastases are currently lacking due to the difficulty of selectively targeting these small, delocalized tumors distributed across a variety of organs. Finally, we discussed the relevant challenges that urgently need to be addressed in clinical practice, coupled with corresponding solutions to these problems.ДЄ vast majority of cancer deaths occur as a result of metastasis. Lastly, we present future directions of PNMs for cancer immunotherapy including the challenges and research gaps, providing new insights about the design of PNMs for efficient cancer immunotherapy with better performance as powerful weapons against tumors. The design of PNMs and their performance in cancer immunotherapy are discussed in detail, with a focus on how those designs can address the challenges in current conventional immunotherapy. Herein, we summarize the recent progress of PNMs including inorganic, organic, and organicвЂ“inorganic hybrid ones for cancer immunotherapy. Recently, novel PNMs based drug delivery systems have been employed in antitumor immunotherapy to enhance tissue or organ targeting and reduce immune-related adverse events. Porous nanomaterials (PNMs) possess high loading capacity and tunable porosity, receiving intense attention in cancer immunotherapy. Current cancer immunotherapy is limited by some barriers such as poor response rate, low tumor specificity and systemic toxicities. Cancer immunotherapy is a novel therapeutic regimen because of the specificity and durability of immune modulations to treat cancers.

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